Food fraud is an increasing public health concern globally. The analysis by the WellnessPulse researchers reveals that countries in Africa and the Middle East are at the highest risk of consuming adulterated foods, while European and North American nations are among those with stronger food safety regulations, lowering the vulnerability of food fraud.
A 2013 scandal shook the world when beef products sold across Europe were found to contain horse meat. While it remains one of the most notorious examples of food adulteration, food fraud is widespread and often overlooked.
Food fraud refers to the deliberate alteration, misrepresentation, or adulteration of food products by manufacturers, typically for financial gain, according to the Institute of Food Science and Technology.
Olive oil is one of the most common targets of fraudsters and is frequently mixed with cheaper oils. Honey, fish, meat, and coffee are also among foods highly susceptible to fraud, such as ingredient substitution and labeling fraud, which may pose health risks to consumers.
The primary motivation behind food fraud is financial profit. The growing global population poses food supply challenges, creating further incentives for adulteration. Countries with weaker regulatory frameworks and insufficient control measures are particularly vulnerable to food fraud.
To identify countries with the highest and lowest vulnerability to food fraud, the WellnessPulse researchers created a Global Food Fraud Vulnerability Index.
A global analysis of food fraud vulnerability
WellnessPulse researchers analyzed data from 105 countries, taking into account economic and public health factors influencing food fraud vulnerability: food fraud incidence rate, availability of technology and knowledge, corruption scores, economic health, food price volatility, reliance on food imports, food regulation standards, and food safety capacity. Each country was assigned a score revealing their level of vulnerability, with countries most at risk scoring the highest.
Read the full methodology here.
Below, we provide a profile of each country on the list of the 10 most and least vulnerable to food fraud. Each description includes the country’s rankings for specific metrics, determining its high or low place on the list. Some countries share a place in the ranking for specific metrics, as they have the same scores after data processing.
A higher ranking of food fraud incidence rate, corruption score, import score, and food price volatility indicates higher vulnerability to food fraud. In contrast, a lower ranking of food safety and regulatory compliance, availability of the latest technology, Global Knowledge Index, GDP per capita, and food safety capacity scores indicate a higher food fraud vulnerability.
Top 10 countries most vulnerable to food fraud
Seven out of ten countries most vulnerable to food fraud are in Africa, with the other three — war-torn Yemen and Syria, as well as Jordan — located in the Middle East, according to the WellnessPulse analysis. Many of these countries suffer from poor economic health and low food safety and regulatory compliance, increasing their vulnerability. Moreover, most of these countries have limited availability of the latest technology that could help identify fraudulent food.
The map below shows each country's vulnerability level to food fraud based on the analyzed factors.
#1 Yemen
The civil war that has been ravaging the country since 2014 caused one of the worst humanitarian crises globally, pushing over 17 million people into acute hunger. Yemenis heavily rely on international food aid, which isn't always of the highest quality. In 2017, a large shipment of American wheat was found to be unfit for human consumption. The war economy further exacerbated corruption challenges existing before the conflict, leaving Yemenis even more vulnerable to food fraud.
- Food fraud risk score: 82.73
- Ranks 1st–11th in food fraud incidence rate
- Ranks 1st–2nd for food imports
- Ranks 105th for the availability of the latest technology
#2 Ivory Coast
In the Sub-Saharan country of 31 million people, poor food safety practices and regulations often cause foodborne illnesses. Despite the number of institutions involved in food inspection and safety, the lack of human and financial resources makes it difficult to monitor the standards approvals granted. More than half of the people in Sub-Saharan countries reported that they had experienced some form of food fraud, such as purchasing expired food products that were re-labeled with new expiry dates.
- Food fraud risk score: 72.83
- Ranks 1st for food price volatility
- Ranks 104th–105th for food safety capacity
- Ranks 105th for food safety and regulatory compliance
#3 Sierra Leone
Sierra Leone is a country on the southwest coast of West Africa, with a population of nearly 9 million people. Most health issues in the country are thought to be associated with a lack of knowledge of food safety along the food chain. Although Sierra Leone has food safety regulations in place, their enforcement is challenging due to limited resources and capacity. Earlier this year, police in the town of Kambia seized large quantities of palm oil adulterated with salt and other chemicals to artificially inflate its volume, according to local media reports.
- Food fraud risk score: 72.55
- Ranks 3rd for food imports
- Ranks 102nd–104th for food safety and regulatory compliance
- Ranks 100th–103rd for food safety capacity
#4 Chad
Chad is a landlocked country in Central Africa, a region where food fraud remains a significant issue. High production costs, weak regulatory systems, and technological limitations are the major challenges in fighting fraudulent food. Chad is among the top 15 poorest countries in the world, with 3.4 million people being acutely food insecure. Consumers needing affordable food options may overlook fraud, while producers may engage in fraudulent practices seeking profit maximization.
- Food fraud risk score: 71.81
- Ranks 102nd–104th for food safety and regulatory compliance
- Ranks 104th for availability of the latest technology
- Ranks 105th in the Global Knowledge Index
#5 Benin
Benin, located in the Sub-Saharan region, faces food fraud problems similar to those in Chad and Sierra Leone. The country is a major importer of foods, and because imports increase the complexity of the food supply chain, they may raise the vulnerability to food fraud, research suggests. However, most goods don’t stay in Benin. An estimated 90% of imported staple foods like frozen poultry, rice, and dairy are re-exported to Western Nigeria or Niger through Benin’s Port of Cotonou, a major transshipment hub.
- Food fraud risk score: 71.65
- Ranks 1st–2nd for food imports
- Ranks 3rd–6th for food price volatility
- Ranks 93rd–101st for food safety and regulatory compliance
#6 Syria
More than a decade-long Syrian civil war may have entered a new phase following the fall of Bashar al-Assad's regime, but food insecurity remains a considerable issue. As food prices soared during the years of conflict, increasing nearly 12-fold between 2019 and 2022 alone, Syrians reported resorting to adulterated products to feed their families. Syria's vulnerability to fraudulent food may also be explained by its high ranking in the Corruption Perceptions Index. When corruption is widespread, businesses are more likely to engage in unethical practices for profit maximization.
- Food fraud risk score: 65.30
- Ranks 2nd in the Corruption Perceptions Index
- Ranks 81st–99th for food safety capacity
- Ranks 93rd–101st for food safety and regulatory compliance
#7 Guinea
More than half of the population in Guinea, a Western African country located on the Atlantic coast, is experiencing unprecedented levels of poverty and food insecurity, according to the World Food Programme. Heavy reliance on imported foods makes Guinea more vulnerable to fraud, according to WellnessPulse analysis. For example, in 2022, the country imported 905,000 tons of rice, mostly from India, China, and Pakistan. International trade increases fraud potential due to extended supply chains and a lack of preventative legal strategies.
- Food fraud risk score: 63.37
- Ranks 4th for food imports
- Ranks 81st–99th for food safety capacity
- Ranks 93rd–101st for food safety and regulatory compliance
#8 Jordan
A high food fraud incidence rate in Jordan, a small kingdom in the Middle East, increases the risk that the rates will remain high or even rise in the future. A 2019 investigation revealed that unsuspected Jordanian customers were purchasing foods containing harmful preservatives and hydrogenated oils, putting their health at risk. The report authors wrote that non-compliance with safety standards is often undetected by the state due to an insufficient number of inspectors and weak monitoring.
- Food fraud risk score: 58.75
- Ranks 1st–11th for food fraud incidence rate
- Ranks 10th–15th for food price volatility
- Ranks 81st–99th for food safety capacity
#9 Madagascar
Madagascar, an African nation with the third-lowest GDP globally and 39.7% of its population undernourished, is among the most vulnerable countries to fraudulent foods globally, the WellnessPulse analysis reveals. Countries with weak economies tend to be more inclined to food fraud, while individuals experiencing severe hunger may see adulterated foods as their last resort. In general, food safety is a major public health concern in developing countries like Madagascar, as affordable food sold in small restaurants and street vendors is often prepared in unhygienic conditions. When foods aren’t properly maintained, consumers are at a higher risk of purchasing expired products.
- Food fraud risk score: 58.65
- Ranks 81st–99th for food safety capacity
- Ranks 93rd–101st for food safety and regulatory compliance
- Ranks 103rd for GDP per capita
#10 Egypt
Egypt, a popular tourist destination in the Eastern Mediterranean region, established the National Food Safety Authority in 2017, but fighting food fraud remains a significant challenge for the government. A 2022 study published in the Electronic Journal of Biotechnology tested 35 meat products sold in Egypt. Of those, 17 were adulterated, and three porcine products contained lard — a soft white substance made from pig fat, a common adulterant. The current economic crisis, resulting in currency devaluation and rising inflation rates, may force consumers to buy cheaper and potentially lower-quality food products, which may expose them to a higher risk of food fraud.
- Food fraud risk score: 58.36
- Ranks 1st–11th for food fraud incidence rate
- Ranks 6th–8th for food imports
- Ranks 88th–91st for food safety and regulatory compliance
Top 10 countries least vulnerable to food fraud
Four European countries, including three located in the North of the continent, are ranked among the least vulnerable to food fraud. According to the WellnessPulse investigation, the United States, Canada, and Australia, along with two East Asian nations and Israel, may be more resistant to fraudulent foods.
Most of these countries have strong economies, low corruption levels, and the latest technology and knowledge to identify this illegal activity. However, even the least vulnerable countries cannot completely prevent food fraud.
#1 Finland
Finland, a Northern European nation, is often at the top of various global rankings. It is the happiest country in the world and has the sixth highest quality of life. Unsurprisingly, Finland is the country least vulnerable to food fraud, according to the analysis. One explanation may be widespread preventative measures — a 2024 survey found that about 60% of business owners had performed a food fraud vulnerability assessment. As corruption in the country is low, producers may be less inclined to engage in fraudulent practices.
- Food fraud risk score: 11.26
- Ranks 1st for the availability of the latest technology
- Ranks 2nd in the Global Knowledge Index
- Ranks 104th in the Corruption Perceptions Index
#2 Australia
Low corruption levels and a strong economy — Australia has one of the highest GDP levels globally, worth $1.728 trillion — may make the country resistant to food fraud. Over 90% of fresh fruit and vegetables, meat, milk, and eggs sold in Australian supermarkets are domestically produced, meaning supply chains are short and less vulnerable to fraudulent products. However, food tampering still occurs in Australia. In 2017, the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission fined a herbs and spices seller nearly $11,000 for selling oregano products that contained less than 100% oregano.
- Food fraud risk score: 11.53
- Ranks 8th for GDP per capita
- Ranks 95th–100th for food imports
- Ranks 96th in the Corruption Perceptions Index
#3 South Korea
An East Asian country with a population of 51 million people, South Korea, is among the least vulnerable to food fraud, according to the analysis. This may partly be due to its high ranking on the Global Knowledge Index, suggesting that the country has technical opportunities and knowledge to detect fraudulent foods. Moreover, South Korea has increasingly strict food safety policies. In 2021, the regulations around imported agricultural products were tightened and now include on-site inspections of foreign food facilities, among other measures.
- Food fraud risk score: 11.77
- Ranks 1st–19th for food safety and regulatory compliance
- Ranks 17th in the Global Knowledge Index
- Ranks 95th–100th for food imports
#4 The United States
Being one of the wealthiest countries in the world, the United States has the knowledge and the latest technology to detect fraudulent foods, data suggests. There are a number of different laws and regulations in place to ensure proper labeling and food safety. Moreover, the Food and Drug Administration, the federal agency overseeing food safety, has several hundred agents deployed worldwide to investigate food fraud. Despite these efforts, food adulteration is impossible to avoid entirely. One study found that 69% of imported “extra-virgin” olive oils sold in California’s retail stores failed to meet internationally accepted standards.
- Food fraud risk score: 12.39
- Ranks 5th for GDP per capita
- Ranks 6th in the Global Knowledge Index
- Ranks 6th for availability of the latest technology
#5 Norway
Having the latest technology widely available, Norway employs it to fight food fraud. In 2020, the major farmed salmon producer in the country, Kvarøy Arctic, announced using blockchain to enhance the traceability of its Arctic salmon. While Norway enjoys low levels of corruption, the threat of food fraud looms in imports. For example, the country has special customs regulations for importing animal products, which may motivate fraudsters to profit from smuggling them into the country.
- Food fraud risk score: 13.68
- Ranks 2nd for availability of the latest technology
- Ranks 3rd for GDP per capita
- Ranks 100th–101st in the Corruption Perceptions Index
#6 Japan
The availability of the latest technology and the high ranking on the Global Knowledge Index allow Japan to look for innovative ways to fight food fraud. However, exports of counterfeit processed foods, alcoholic drinks, and soft drinks cost Japan $904 million in losses in 2021. Many of these products are manufactured in China and sold as Japanese goods in other countries. In an attempt to fight fraudulent practices, Japan is developing high-tech tools, such as a mobile-based bidirectional tracing system for food products.
- Food fraud risk score: 14.22
- Ranks 9th for the availability of the latest technology
- Ranks 15th in the Global Knowledge Index
- Ranks 91st–92nd in the Corruption Perceptions Index
#7 Canada
Thanks to low corruption levels and well-developed technology, Canada made it to the list of the countries least vulnerable to food fraud. However, it doesn’t mean there are no attempts at this illegal activity. Between April 2022 and March 2023, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) prevented nearly 140,000 kg of misrepresented food from being sold in the country. Moreover, the aquaculture industry is a weak point in Canada. A 2021 study found that 46% of tested samples of seafood sold at the market were mislabelled.
- Food fraud risk score: 14.94
- Ranks 11th in the Global Knowledge Index
- Ranks 12th for the availability of the latest technology
- Ranks 93rd–94th in the Corruption Perceptions Index
#8 Denmark
Denmark’s low ranking on the Food Fraud Vulnerability Index should come as no surprise, as it is the least corrupt country in the world. The Food Inspection Task Force was established in 2006, with more than 40 employees from different professional backgrounds working on suspected food fraud cases. Technology may also play an important role in prevention efforts. In 2020, researchers at the Technical University of Denmark developed analytic methods to detect food fraud using spectrometry. Nevertheless, Denmark and neighboring countries remain attractive targets for fraudsters. Because food from the region is expensive, criminals aim to sell products disguised as Nordic foods to increase profits.
- Food fraud risk score: 15.42
- Ranks 4th–5th in the Global Knowledge Index
- Ranks 16th for the availability of the latest technology
- Ranks 105th in the Corruption Perceptions Index
#9 Israel
Well-known for its advanced technology, this Middle Eastern nation is working on improving food safety not only at home but also globally. Israel’s Agri-Food-Tech industry is made up of nearly 400 companies, some of which have developed solutions to ensure food safety across supply chains. For example, Israeli startup Varcode offers cloud-based cold chain monitoring for temperature-sensitive products.
- Food fraud risk score: 16.74
- Ranks 4th for the availability of the latest technology
- Ranks 16th for GDP per capita
- Ranks 16th in the Global Knowledge Index
#10 Austria
As a member of the European Union, Austria belongs to the EU Agri-Food Fraud Network, which combines food science expertise and law enforcement to fight food fraud at the national and EU level. Every year, experts at the Austrian Agency for Health and Food Safety examine about 30,000 food samples. If products are found to be unsafe or harmful, they are immediately withdrawn from the market. Being one of the wealthiest countries globally also makes Austria less vulnerable to fraudulent food.
- Food fraud risk score: 17.60
- Ranks 1st–19th for food safety and regulatory compliance
- Ranks 9th in the Global Knowledge Index
- Ranks 10th for GDP per capita
The dataset below offers detailed insights into each country’s vulnerability to food fraud.
Methodology
The WellnessPulse researchers conducted the analysis for 105 countries using the steps below:
- Researched factors influencing food fraud vulnerability, analyzing scientific, economic, and public health data from peer-reviewed journals and industry reports.
- Identified key food fraud vulnerability metrics based on research findings.
- Collected the latest available data for each metric across all countries from reputable sources, such as the United Nations database, Economist Impact, and similar.
- Analyzed the data quality and statistical parameters (data distribution measurements and outliers).
- Examined the correlations between selected metrics.
- Applied suitable data transformations where necessary using the Winsorization method and reassessed statistical parameters.
- Standardized all metric data to a 0–100 scale using the Min-Max normalization method. Countries with higher metric scores after normalization are suggested to have a higher susceptibility to food fraud.
- Assigned weights to metrics and calculated index scores for each country, ranging from 0 to 100.
- Evaluated the reliability and stability of the index calculation method.
How were the metrics selected?
The selection of metrics for calculating the index was based on a 2017 study highlighting factors influencing vulnerability to food fraud. They are classified into three groups: opportunity-related factors, motivation-related fraud factors, and control-measure-related factors.
Based on data availability and relevance, eight key metrics were selected for the Food Fraud Vulnerability Index, reflecting the researchers’ expertise and understanding of the topic. The selected metrics are the following:
The food fraud incidence rate adjusted to population size provides information on previous criminal offenses for food fraud. The higher the incidence, the more likely it is that the incidence rates will remain high or even rise in the future.
The availability of technology and knowledge helps to determine whether the country has the technical opportunities and knowledge to detect fraudulent foods. However, since technology and knowledge can also be used to adulterate food, this metric is given a lower weight for index calculation.
Corruption scores. Research suggests that in countries with high corruption levels, businesses are more likely to engage in unethical or illegal practices to maximize profits.
Economic health. Economic motivation can manifest in two distinct ways: pursuing higher profits or avoiding financial losses — essentially, the drive for greater material gain versus the fear of losing existing resources. Therefore, countries with weaker economies generally tend to be more inclined to engage in food fraud.
Price differences in countries or food price volatility. Fluctuating prices are a major motivation for food fraud. Thus, countries with the highest price volatility scores would be most susceptible to food fraud.
Food import scores. Imports increase the complexity of a food supply chain, resulting in a higher vulnerability to fraudulent foods. Therefore, countries that import more are more likely to encounter food fraud.
Food regulation standards, such as food nutrition labeling requirements, relevant food safety legislation, and food safety mechanisms, should decrease the motivation to adulterate food and stop fraudulent food from entering the market.
Food safety capacity refers to the ability of certain organizations to ensure that safety standards are met. This adds up to food regulation requirements, as it ensures that those requirements are met by food suppliers.
All metrics above were assigned to one of the three categories: opportunity, motivational, or control factors. Research has proposed that control measures should mitigate the opportunity and motivation factors; therefore, the weights were divided accordingly: 20% for opportunity factors, 30% for motivation factors, and 50% for control measures. In this perfect scenario, the vulnerability would be very close to zero.
Limitations
The WellnessPulse analysis of the countries most and least vulnerable to food fraud has several limitations to consider:
- Countries with populations of less than 200,000 and those without at least one metric data source of our choice have been eliminated from the analysis. This raises the possibility that other countries may be more vulnerable to food fraud than those included in the ranking.
- Some metrics, such as the availability of technology and the Global Knowledge Index, showed high correlations with other factors. Their weights were reduced to prevent overrepresentation, which may have influenced the final results.
- The vulnerability for food fraud is not static — it changes over time due to economic fluctuations, regulatory changes, geopolitical shifts, and technological advancements. The index provides a snapshot based on available data but may not fully capture future trends.
- The assignment of weights to different metrics was based on existing research and the team’s judgment. However, variations in weight distribution could impact the final vulnerability index, meaning alternative weight assignments might lead to different rankings. Therefore, the results of the Food Fraud Vulnerability Index should be considered generalized.
- Countries with complex, multinational food supply chains might be more vulnerable to fraud due to the involvement of multiple intermediaries. However, this complexity was not explicitly accounted for in the index calculation.
- The results are generalized and may be less applicable to countries with varying regulatory frameworks, such as the United States, because the index represents an average score for the entire country.
- Major global events, such as extreme food supply shortages, can impact a country's vulnerability to food fraud.
- Not all possible risk factors for food fraud vulnerability were analyzed.
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